Branch Reflection #8

Analysis

Planning classroom lessons requires far more than choosing a cute activity from Pinterest or Teachers Pay Teachers.  Effective lesson planning begins with the end in mine.  

Before even introducing a hook, teachers must formulate learning objectives; "setting out objectives at the beginning of a course is an essential step in providing a framework into which individual lessons will fit" (Slavin, 2015, p.340).  Strong objectives should include three components: performance ("what a learner is expected to do"), conditions ("conditions under which the performance is to occur"), and criteria ("describes the criterion of acceptable performance") (Slavin, 2015, p.340).  An objective should be as specific as the expectations.  When constructing the objective, a teacher must also consider the prerequisites needed for success.  For example, if an objective is to measure a student’s skills with constructing a compare and contrast of a situation, and the student is expected to electronically share the essay, the teacher must first ensure that the student is knowledgeable of the electronic platform. 

According to backwards planning and the Professional Learning Communities (PLC) model, assessments should be made before instruction ever begins.  Objectives and assessments should be closely connected; “teaching should be closely linked to instructional objectives, and both should clearly relate to assessment” (Slavin, 2015, p.345).  In addition, a teacher must consider the cognitive level in which standards should be assessed; Bloom’s Taxonomy can serve as a guide.  Assessments serve many purposes in the classroom; the six main intentions include: feedback to students, feedback to teachers, information to parents, information for selection and certification, information for accountability, and incentives to increase student effort (Slavin, 2015, p.348).  Regardless of the goal, formative assessments for learning drive the direction of the classroom.

Students need a variety of assessment methods.  Evaluations should include items that clearly assess the intention of the objective.  Multiple choice questions are not the most appropriate item for all objectives; depending on the cognitive level required, some standards need students to construct something, whether that be an essay, portfolio, or performance assessment.  When issuing non-traditional assessments, teachers should present clear rubrics prior to the work so that they can serve as a guide for students.   

Reflection

I appreciate that my county formulates teams of teachers to create a curriculum map of content standards.  The group first labels power standards, and then they work to designate how much time to spend on each standard.  The map serves as a wonderful guide when I am lesson planning; I can easily use the backwards planning design.  In addition, blueprint documents are created; blueprints list the number of assessment questions needed for each standard, the types of questions, and the depth of knowledge (DOK).  Common assessments are even made for county level feedback.

In regards to assessment items, I mostly use multiple-choice (‘select one’ and ‘select all that apply’) and constructed response, both of which are used to assess students on the summative high-stakes state test.  I work to mimic how the students will need to perform for promotion purposes.  While preparation is important, I recognize the need to produce more authentic assessment opportunities.  I continue to work in this area.

I am extremely grateful for an assessment itembank my county purchases; I have access to thousands of test items of various question types and DOK levels.  The items are valid and reliable; I simply have to select appropriate items based on learning objectives.  By having this resource, I feel that I have been able to more easily grow in the area of assessments.  Instead of focusing so much attention on constructing questions, I am able to focus on matching objectives to items with suitable cognitive expectations.          

References

Slavin, R. E. (2015). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (11th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

Branch Reflection #7

Analysis

Classroom management is so much more than rules and discipline.  In addition to behavior management, classroom management includes strategies for "using class time well, creating an atmosphere that is conducive to interest and inquiry, and permitting activities that engage students' minds and imaginations" (Slavin, 2015, p.272).  Students who are engaged during a lesson and motivated to learn are less likely to participate in off-task behaviors.  

Allocated time refers to the amount of time designated for students to learn.  A teacher with strong classroom management maximizes this time, using all allocated time as time on task.  Understanding that some disruptions are inevitable, teachers must work to ensure that the classroom is organized and structured in a way that promotes maximum engaged time for students.

Maximizing time on task is not a natural tendency; teachers must create a culture that prioritizes learning.  By starting class on time and using the entire class block, teachers send the message that learning is important.  Teachers must establish routines and procedures so that students know what is expected; routines and procedures must be introduced on the first day of school and practiced frequently for reinforcement.  Something as simple as a procedure for sharpening pencils minimizes disruptions and maximizes instructional time.  Classrooms should be efficiently organized, designating places for submitting work and retrieving materials, and they should be managed with clear behavior expectations that students understand and respect.       

Teachers can maintain a fast paced lesson that includes opportunities for student involvement to create an engaging environment.  Transitions should be efficient; students should know how to transition from one task to the next.  Transitions can be made fun and should be done all at once.

In order to promote focus during class, students need accountability measures.  During lessons, teachers can use strategies like choral responses and group alerting, randomly calling on students after a question has been stated.  During seatwork, teachers can cruise the classroom, assisting as needed and monitoring student progress.  In a student-centered classroom, teachers must expect conversations and movement; learning looks much different than that of a traditional classroom.         

Discipline is best handled by preventing it in the first place.  Working to engage students helps to prevent behavior problems.  When it is necessary to confront a student for inappropriate behaviors, teachers should always use "the simplest intervention that will work" (Slavin, 2015, p.280).  Nonverbal cues serve as an effective tool for many; giving the 'teacher look' gets the attention of many.  Praise and verbal reminders are effective intervention strategies, too.  When issuing a consequence is necessary, teachers must ensure the punishment fits the crime.  

For students who habitually misbehave, applied behavior analysis is beneficial; behaviors that continue over time are being maintained by some type of reinforcer (Slavin, 2015, p.283).  By establishing an individual behavior management plan, teachers can use a "systematic application of antecedents and consequences to change behavior" (Slavin, 2015, p.285).  

Reflection

This week's text serves as a great reminder.  As I spend time reflecting this summer, thinking about what has and has not worked in past years, I begin planning for the upcoming school year.  My team has already decided to spend more time at the beginning of the year to establish rules, procedures, and routines.  We recognized the importance this past year.  We often jump too quickly into curriculum, thinking that we have to race the clock; we must teach everything before the test!  However, what we discussed and what this chapter supports is that time spent up front establishes stronger classroom management.  Giving up time at the beginning saves time in the long run.    

For me, summer serves as a time to start over, a time to reinvent my classroom.  Once my floors are shiny clean, I visit my classroom to maneuver furniture and create procedures.  In a nerdy teacher way, summer planning is refreshing!  I love getting to create ways for my classroom to run efficiently and effectively.  I guess I am a sucker for classroom management. 😊 

After reading the text, I did recognize an area in which I need to focus for growth.  In some incidents, I have strong transitions; students know what to do and how to do it.  However, there are times of transition during lessons (like moving from whole group to small groups/centers) where I probably lose too much time.  In order to keep students engaged and promote a culture that prioritizes learning, I need to tighten my routines.  I look forward to researching and collaborating with my team to establish a stronger structure in my classroom.  

References

Slavin, R. E. (2015). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (11th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

Branch Reflection #6

Analysis

Effective instruction is much more than a good lesson.  In fact, Slavin purposes the QAIT model, an instructional model similar to John Carroll's Model of School Learning (Slavin, 2015, p.216).  The QAIT model focuses on four elements that must be present to directly impact student learning: quality of instruction, appropriate levels of instruction, incentive, and time (Slavin, 2015, p.216).

When people think of teaching, they imagine the strategies involved in quality of instruction.  Teachers must ensure that content is delivered in a manner that students understand and remember.  Appropriate levels of instruction refers to differentiation.  All students in a classroom are not on the same instructional level, so teachers must individualize classroom experiences for each student to achieve success.  Unfortunately, not all students are naturally motivated to learn.  Incentive as a component refers to the teacher's responsibility to motivate students to want to know the material.  Lastly, time is an element that must be considered for effective instruction; allocated time is "the amount of time that you schedule for instruction," and engaged time is "the amount of time students pay attention to the lesson" (Slavin, 2015, p.218).  A teacher must always examine all four areas to adequately instruct all students. 

A great deal of opinions and controversy surround the topic of grouping students.  Students can be placed in between-class ability groups or within-class ability groups.  Although people assume students perform best when placed in homogeneous classes, research shows otherwise.  Researchers have found that students placed in low-track classes often show losses (Slavin, 2015, p.220).  

Most elementary schools group students within heterogeneous classes.  Small groups are often formed for instructional purposes, especially in math and reading.  Within the flexible, homogeneous groups, teachers differentiate instruction, believing that "all children can reach high standards, but some may need tailored assistance to do so" (Slavin, 2015, p.224).  

Tutoring is a strategy utilized in the classroom for students who need additional assistance for success.  Peer tutoring, whether same age or cross-age, benefits both parties involved.  Some studies even suggest that tutors exhibit greater achievement gains than tutees (Slavin, 2015, p.224).  Although financial obligations often prohibit it, teacher tutors are proven to be effective.  

Title I and other federally funded programs offer financial assistance to schools of disadvantaged populations (40% or more free and reduced lunch).  Children of low-income families often need additional resources to close academic gaps; Title I funds are used to supplement local efforts (Slavin, 2015, p.227). 

Regardless of how students are grouped, technology can be used for instructional and assessment purposes.  Gone are the days when computers were only used for producing typed papers.  Technology can now be an avenue for producing authentic products, collaborating with peers, teachers, and experts, and retrieving information beyond the walls of the school.    


Reflection

As an elementary school math teacher, my classes are heterogeneously grouped.  I often form fluid, small groups within my classroom to differentiate instruction.  I have never considered the number of groups I make, though; I usually make three or four, but I sometimes form more, depending on the various levels of my students with the particular skill at hand.  I was fascinated by the research that shows "with only three groups, seatwork time rises to at least two-thirds of class time" (Slavin, 2015, p.222). 

Reading the information regarding retention was eye-opening.  My team and I just advocated for a student to be retained.  The child did not perform well during the school year, and then he did not pass math or reading on GMAS.  When given the opportunity for a re-test, he barely passed math, but he did not have the lexile level to be successful in reading.  Based on scores, GMAS and grades, and his maturity level, we voted to retain the student.  Now I wonder, did we make the best decision??

I teach at a Title I school, so I personally know the advantages of additional resource funds.  I appreciate the instructional resources I receive, as well as the Pyramid of Intervention (POI) teachers hired to help close academic gaps.  We have also purchased a great deal of technology, and we offer an afterschool tutoring program every spring in preparation for state testing.       

My school is not yet at a one-to-one ratio, but we are definitely heading in that direction.  Technology opens up the walls of the classroom.  Over the past four years, I have begun incorporating more and more technology in the classroom.  As an elective this summer, I am taking Information Fluency and Inquiry Learning; the class content has broadened my knowledge of how to implement technology in the classroom.  I am barely skimming the surface!  I have big plans to use more next school year!

References

Slavin, R. E. (2015). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (11th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

Branch Reflection #5

Analysis

The constructivist learning theory, supported by the work of Piaget and Vygotsky, is based on the idea that "learners must individually discover and transform complex information if they are to make it their own" (Slavin, 2015, p.190).  The theory places the student in the center of learning.  Vygotsky's work plays a crucial role in the constructivist views; four of his ideas specifically influence the theory.  Vygotsky believes children learn a great deal from each other, supporting the idea of social learning (Slavin, 2015, p.190).  Vygotsky also believes students have a range of skills (zone of proximal development) and that there is a "process by which a learner gradually acquires expertise through interaction with an expert" (cognitive apprenticeship) (Slavin, 2015, 190-191).  Lastly, Vygotsky's work emphasizes the use of scaffolding in the learning process (mediated learning) (Slavin, 2015, p.191).

The constructivist theory believes in a top-down approach for classroom instruction; top-down instruction "means that students begin with complex problems to solve and then work out or discover (with [teacher] guidance) the basic skills required" (Slavin, 2015, p.191).  Implementing top-down instruction is best supported by discovery learning with peer interaction.  Through this method, the student is an active participant in the learning process, and a desired outcome is to produce self-regulated learners (Slavin, 2015, p.193).  

Cooperative learning is more than students working together in groups.  Cooperative learning provides an avenue for students to collaborate in small groups "to help each other learn" (Slavin, 2015, p.199).  Formal examples of cooperative learning methods include Jigsaw, Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies, and Student Teams-Achievement Divisions (Slavin, 2015, p.200-203).  Informal examples include think-pair-share and numbered heads (Slavin, 2015, p.203).   Regardless of the method, teachers must incorporate group incentives and individual accountability (Slavin, 2015, p.204).  In addition, students are more successful when they are taught "communication and helping skills" and "metacognitive learning strategies" (Slavin, 2015, p.204).  Students must be equipped for success before being placed in a cooperative environment.               

In combination with using cooperative learning in the classroom, intentional teachers teach and model problem solving and critical thinking strategies; they create a
"culture of thinking" (Slavin, 2015, p.206-210).

Reflection

I support the work of constructivist theorists like Vygotsky and implement a great deal of cooperative learning in my classroom.  I believe in children learning through conversation.  Reading the text opened my eyes to so many strategies; I am definitely not as proficient as I thought.  

As a fifth grade math teacher, I feel that guided discovery learning is best for my elementary students; I serve as a facilitator and guide for learning.  I also use scaffolding on a regular basis; I extend a lot of structure at the beginning of a unit, gradually releasing students as they are ready for more independence.  

The most intriguing cooperative learning method in the text was the Jigsaw approach.  I love the idea of students have a responsibility and forming expert groups.  The format of this method provides support and accountability for students, and the structure gives students the opportunity to work with many different peers.  I look forward to using this strategy in my classroom.  

As a student, I was always the kid who did all the work in a group project; the lack of initiative from some teammates frustrated me, but the desire for a good grade motivated me.  I appreciate the research that suggests teachers provide group incentives and individual accountability measures.  Knowing that all members have a vital role promotes a true collaborative environment.

Lastly, I have been in numerous conversations with colleagues regarding the need for students to develop problem-solving skills.  When I read about Bransford and Stein's IDEAL strategy, I was excited about the simplicity of the method (Slavin, 2015, p.206).  Giving students five simple steps can take them through the process of problem to solution.  I hope to incorporate IDEAL in my classroom.    

References

Slavin, R. E. (2015). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (11th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

Branch Reflection #4

Analysis

Planning an effective lesson is a vital component of the classroom; Slavin comments that "the lesson is where education takes place" (2015, p.162).  As a teacher improves with experience, he/she discovers all the many methods and strategies available to incorporate.  The craft of teaching is knowing what methods or strategies will be the most effective for the content and the students.  

Direct instruction is a method that involves the teacher presenting content directly to students (Slavin, 2015, p.162).  Direct instruction is often called whole group teaching.  Implementing this method into the classroom requires a logical path for a successful presentation (Slavin, 2015, p.163).  The teacher first states the learning targets and captures the students' attention.  Then the instructor reviews prior knowledge necessary for the lesson; connecting prerequisite skills to new information aids in retention (Slavin, 2015, p.142).  Once the platform is set, the teacher introduces the new content, asking questions to evaluate understanding and misconceptions and providing opportunities for guided practice.  Formative assessments for learning are essential to give the teacher feedback.  Once the students show understanding, distributed practice and review help move the content from working memory to long-term memory (Slavin, 2015, p.142).

Even though the teacher is leading the charge in a direct instruction lesson, there are opportunities for students to be engaged through discussion and hands-on practice.  The teacher should model the new skill and provide visual representations when appropriate; Sousa believes "visual representations are maintained in long-term memory far more readily than information that is only heard" (Slavin, 2015, p.169).  Questions that probe students should be pre-planned and used to gauge student understanding and misconceptions as well as set the pace of the lesson (Slavin, 2015, p.170-171).

Discussions are another method teachers can implement in the classroom.  Just like direct instruction, the teacher must review prior knowledge to ensure all students are prepared for a productive conversation.  Discussions can take place in a whole-class setting or in small groups; in either setting, the teacher takes "a less dominant role" (Slavin, 2015, p.183).  For whole-class discussions, the teacher serves as the moderator and steers the group conversation.  In the small group model, the teacher has less control, moving from group to group to probe, redirect, and affirm.          

Reflection

I believe reading this chapter is divinely appointed.  My math partner and I encountered a blog that shared a teacher's experience of teaching solely through small groups; she completely abandoned whole group teaching.  The blog was appealing and convincing, so we have been contemplating shifting our classroom to model the teacher's idea.  There have been reservations, but we are always up for a new way to reach our students.  After reading the text this week, though, I am convinced we will better serve our students by incorporating a variety of methods.  So many educators give direct instruction a bad name, but I believe it has its place in the classroom.  Do I think it should be the dominant delivery method in a classroom?  Absolutely not!  In my opinion, direct instruction is best used when presenting a new content unit.  As students move forward and the need for differentiation and scaffolding increases, I feel it is most appropriate to incorporate a small group model.  Once I establish skill levels, I prefer meeting with students in smaller settings.  In addition, when the class is working in small groups, with me sometimes leading a group, other students can be at stations using technology, working on distributed practice, or completing an acceleration, enrichment, or remediation activity.  In addition to the divine information, I appreciate the guidance provided in the text on direct instruction lesson structure.  I hope to keep the lesson parts in the forefront of my mind as I plan for instruction this coming school year.     

References

Slavin, R. E. (2015). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (11th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

Branch Reflection #3

Analysis

The information processing theory, a model of learning and memory, has three key factors: the sensory register, working memory, and long-term memory; regardless of the phase in the process, the learner is in control (Slavin, 2015, p.124).  The research conducted for this theory has greatly impacted instructional strategies and models utilized in today's classroom.    

The sensory register component is dictated by the senses, and the information obtained during this stage is short-lived unless one purposefully retains it.  The working memory, also known as short-term memory, holds any thoughts a person is conscious of having.  As the name states, the information is not held long; this stage is "where the mind operates on information, organizes it for storage or discarding, and connects it to other information" (Slavin, 2015, p.127).  A person's long-term memory has a large capacity for holding information and strategies.      

Long-term memory can be categorized into three different sections.  Episodic memory is where a person stores personal experiences, and procedural memory is the component that remembers how to do something.  The semantic memory is the compartment that holds "facts and generalized information... concepts, principles, or rules and how to use them... problem solving skills and learning strategies" (Slavin, 2015, p.129).  If a teacher intentionally creates an opportunity for a learning event (project, play, simulation, etc...), then the student's episodic memory will help to retain the information learned.  Information in the semantic memory is organized by schema; teachers should share strategies for students to better organize data for easier retrieval.

Active learning is necessary in a progressive classroom; "instructional strategies that actively involve students in lessons contribute to long-term retention" (Slavin, 2015, p.132).  Distributed practice does make improvement, and students benefit from doing and creating.  Example strategies that educators can teach include paired-associate learning, the loci method, mnemonic devices, and initial-letter strategies.  Other metacognitive strategies include taking practice tests, note-taking, underlining, summarizing, and advanced organizers.

Students in a classroom are so diverse.  Therefore, the role of a teacher is to introduce multiple strategies so that students can use what is best to retain the information presented.  In order for learning to be meaningful, students should be able to connect with prior knowledge and then actively participate in the learning process.          

Reflection


The information shared in chapter six seems God-ordained.  As I reflect on the past school year, looking for ways to improve, the strategies presented in the text provide me fresh insight on the workings of my classroom.  Knowing that distributed practice is beneficial for retention confirms that our method of spiral homework is best and should be continued.  The benefits also encourage my idea of students daily completing more spiral work in a class center.  With more rigorous high-stakes tests, students are now required to explain math concepts, not just solve problems.  My desire to write more in math because of testing is also supported by the fact that "writing the content they are learning helps them understand and remember it" (Slavin, 2015, p.149).  Writing will aid in information retention.  Even knowing that silly little acronyms or sentences for helping students remember steps or the order of information is a helpful strategy.  For example, I use initial-letter strategy when teaching metric measurement conversions (King Henry Does Usually Drink Chocolate Milk).       
For math fact fluency, rote learning must occur, but distributed practice helps a student retain the facts.  In addition, Paivio's dual code theory supports my desire to incorporate incremental rehearsal techniques with flashcards; the visual and verbal aspects of the theory will help students with automaticity.  My plan is to spend time at the beginning of the year teaching the strategies before implementing a tool of measurement; students need to be equipped before I hold them accountable.        

My takeaway from chapter six is that I must equip my students.  If I want to promote a culture of lifelong learners and present content in a meaningful way, I need to prepare my students with strategies for success.  I must be cognizant of presenting information to students in a way that makes it to long-term memory.  

References

Slavin, R. E. (2015). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (11th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.

Branch Reflection #2

Analysis

Learning occurs in many different ways.  Over the years, researchers have developed behavioral and social learning theories.  Pavlov, Skinner, and Bandura are key researchers of learning theories.    

Ivan Pavlov's research resulted in classical conditioning, a behavioral learning theory.  In his work, Pavlov discovered that "a neutral stimulus that at first prompts no response becomes paired with an unconditioned stimulus and gains the power of that stimulus to cause a response" (Slavin, 2015, p.102).  He found that subjects could be conditioned for a certain behavior.  

B. F. Skinner, a researcher who focused on the relationship between behaviors and consequences, developed the theory of operant conditioning.  Skinner's work revealed that both pleasant and unpleasant consequences changed behaviors (Slavin, 2015, p.101).  When a consequence is enjoyed and prompts increasing the frequency of the behavior, it is said to be a reinforcer.  Any consequence that is undesirable and decreases the occurrence of the behavior is called a punisher.  

Behavior learning theorists believe that consequences should occur immediately following an action; a connection should be made between the behavior and the consequence (Slavin, 2015, p.107-108).  They also agree that all efforts should first be made to praise good decisions before issuing a consequence.  In addition, shaping is a process in which researchers believe subjects can be guided step by step to success; instead of expecting the end product to be exhibited right away, a person is praised along the way, acknowledging each milestone.

Albert Bandura's work with social learning theory supports observational learning.  His work suggests that people learn a great deal from modeling and vicarious learning.  He believes that when a person mimics an observed behavior, he/she expects the observed outcome.  Bandura's observational learning theory includes four phases: attentional, retention, reproduction, and motivational (Slavin, 2015, p.114).                  

Reflection

Over the last few days, I have paid closer attention to my words and actions regarding behaviors, both at school and at home.  Reading about the various behavioral and social learning theories served as a great reminder.   Children need to have good examples to follow, and they need ample guidance on desired expectations.

Just as the age-old saying goes, "monkey see, monkey do."  I agree with the work of Bandura; children will mimic the behavior they see modeled.  Whether a behavior is seen at home, on television, or on the playground, students will likely repeat what they see and hear.  For example, if a pop culture cartoon character consistently calls others a jerk, a child who watches the show will likely begin calling people a jerk.  It is vital that I model the behaviors I want my students and daughters to imitate.  If I expect my students to walk silently on the right side of the hall, I should walk silently on the right side of the hall.  If I expect my daughters to use good table manners at dinner, I should exhibit good table manners at the dinner table.      

According to Skinner's operant conditioning theory, I should reinforce any behaviors I expect students to exhibit (Slavin, 2015, p.104).  Some students are intrinsically motivated, but many of my students are extrinsically motivated; I offer incentives for positive choices.  The most eye-opening material I read involved reinforcers and punishers, specifically positive and negative reinforcers.  I was amazed by the content regarding students talking out in class.  I feel certain that in most cases I have acknowledged a student for speaking out at an inappropriate time, reprimanding and correcting the behavior.  By doing so, I have been reinforcing the behavior; even though I am not giving a pleasant response to the behavior, my interaction serves as a negative reinforcer.  Instead, I should ignore the students who are not following directions and publicly praise those students who are choosing obedience.

Even before this class began, I was already in conversation with some of my colleagues about routines and procedures.  At the beginning of each school year, I feel that I have been jumping too quickly into curriculum, sacrificing the appropriate time needed for habits to form with routines and procedures.  One of my goals for the 2017-2018 school year is to structure my first week around behaviors rather than content.  Then, along the way, I plan to carve out time for practice.  Using the work of Skinner and Bandura as a foundation, hopefully I will instill behaviors that promote a better learning environment.    

References

Slavin, R. E. (2015). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (11th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.